Global R & D Trends in 3D Printing

¿Qué?
Precise Planning of Orthognathic Surgery - Alveolar arches of the maxilar and mandíbula of the modelos were replaced with Orthodontic dental cast modelos. Temporomandibular joints of the modelos were fixed with Kirschner wire.

¿Por qué?
To increase of accuracy in Orthodontic surgery and prevention of condylar malpositioning and condylar sag by using life-sized, 3D modelos of our patients preoperatively.

¿Qué?
Surgical planning, three-dimensional modelo surgery and preshaped implantes in treatment of bilateral craniomaxillofacial post-traumático deformidad.

¿Por qué?
Accuracy and efficiency and good therapeutic outcomes in the treatment of bilateral craniomaxillofacial post-traumático deformidad.

¿Qué?
Modelos can be used as templates to form titanium mesh implantes, which are then used in the reconstrucción of orbital floor defects.

¿Por qué?
Make it easier the process of fitting and aligning implantes difficult, time consuming and operador dependiente.

¿Qué?
Biomodelling in complejo surgery in patients with craneofacial, maxilofacial, skull base cervical spinal pathology.

¿Por qué?
Better communication with patient and other surgeons, help diagnosis and operative planning, and surgeons tono rehearse procedures readily.

¿Qué?
Diagnosis y treatment planning de maxillary canine impaction mediante computed tomography combined with rapid prototyping.

¿Por qué?
Treating año impacted maxillary canine requires Identifying its exact position; this can ponga a challenge to both orthodontists and oral surgeons.

¿Qué?
A high-fidelity, inexpensive middle ear simulator could be created. Experto otologists will rate the SMS as having a high degree of realism in terms of shape and mechanical properties of the human middle ear Affected by otosclerosis.

¿Por qué?
Inexpensive surgical middle ear simulator ENHANCE surgical training for novice surgeons.

¿Qué?
Prototyping of temporal bone for surgical training and medical education.

¿Por qué?
Scarce media of temporal buenas for trainee.

¿Qué?
Mirror técnico y rápido prototyping techniques estaban para designar y prefabricar el individualizado template para la preoperativa repair de orbital inferior wall y maxillary anterior wall defects.

¿Por qué?
Improve surgical accuracy.

¿Qué?
Significando reduction in operative time with prototyping in craneofacial surgery: using a positioning guide after zygomatic osteotomy.

¿Por qué?
The management of post-traumático deformity in the midface región pones challenges for the maxilofaciales surgeon.

¿Qué?
Operative Dentistry Education - Dentistry, where 40 students used 3Dprinted modelos versus standard schematics and photographs for cavity preparation.

¿Por qué?
Many students struggle for visual recognition. This is because 2D images and ilustraciones make it more difficult to identify and view the ángulos and walls of cavity preparation; also, when the prepare technique is demonstrated by a teacher in real teeth, the students 'field of vision is limited, making it difficult for them to learn.

¿Qué?
Designing and manufacturing tienen auricular prosthesis.

¿Por qué?
Reducir varios preliminares procedures currently used to create en auricular prosthesis.

¿Qué?
Bionic ear Composed of living cells and electronic nanoparticles.

¿Por qué?
The printed ear exhibidos enhanced Auditory sensing for radio frequency reception, and complementary left and right ears can listen to stereo audio music. Overall, our approach suggests a means to intricately merge biológico and nanoelectrónica functionalities vía 3D printing.

¿Qué?
Visualization method was used in surgery for cerebral Aneurysm. Using the rapid prototyping technology.

¿Por qué?
Las biomodelas estaban usando para diagnosis, operativo planning, surgical simulation, instrucción para las experiencias de neurosurgeones, y sufriente educación.

¿Qué?
Three-dimensional printed vascular modelos.

¿Por qué?
Provide unprecedented anatómico and volumétrico detail and, in addition to assisting in potential treatment planning, can noninvasively provide details needed to determine a surgical oro nonsurgical approach for a complejo lesión.

¿Qué?
Creation of a solid skull and the cerebral vessels in different materiales tono simulate the real Aneurysm when clipped.

¿Por qué?
Simulation-based training for Aneurysm repair.

¿Qué?
Surgical training as a learning process for young surgeons oro for Ewing 's sarcoma in the cervical spine.

¿Por qué?
As a result, it is easier for the surgeon to understand the complexity of the case and plan the approach before año surgical procedure.

¿Qué?
Anatomical correct 3D rapid prototyping modelo (RPT) for patients with complejo heart disease and Altered geometry of the ATRIA oro ventrículos.

¿Por qué?
The use of the 3D rapid prototyping modelo (RPT-modelo) during resection of ventricular Aneurysm and malignos cardiaco tumores may facilitate the surgical procedure due to better planning and improved orientation.

¿Qué?
Understanding and treating structural heart disease.

¿Por qué?
Current 2-dimensional imaging techniques remain limited both in their ability to represent the complejo 3-dimensional relationships presente in structural heart disease and in their capacity to adequately facilitate often complejo correctiva procedures.

¿Qué?
Three-dimensional modelos of complejo congenitally malformed hearts.

¿Por qué?
Current imaging techniques, however, do not always provide all the necessary anatómico information in a user-friendly fashion.

¿Qué?
Surgical planning and intraoperative orientation with 3DP for aórtica valve replacement after previous Coronary bypass grafting.

¿Por qué?
Resternotomy for aórtica valve replacement in patients with previous Coronary artery bypass grafting and an internal mammary artery Graft may be a surgical problem.

Que?
Percutaneous Pulmonary valve implantation based on rapid prototyping of right ventricular outflows tract and Pulmonary trunk.

¿Por qué?
Refine the selection of patients for percutaneous Pulmonary valve implantation (PPVI).

¿Qué?
Preoperative endovascular simulations in cerebral Aneurysm using a patient-specific silicone modelo.

¿Por qué?
Simulaciones son fáciles y helpful para designar a tratamientos de tratamientos y la correcta manipulación de endovascular devices para experimentar sus behavior por treatment actual.

¿Qué?
Use of Anatomical modelos for planning of percutaneous Pulmonary valved stent implantation.

¿Por qué?
Allowed the cardiologist s confidence in patient selection, prosthesis fabrication, and final implantation to be significantly improved.

¿Qué?
Use of three-dimensional printing modelos for preoperative planning of transcatheter valve replacement in a patient with an extreme porcelain aorta.

¿Por qué?
Evaluate the potential effects of these constructivo for previous surgical planning and simulation of the transcatheter valve replacement.

¿Qué?
Use of TangoPlus FullCure 930® is a commercially available rubber-like material that can be used for Polyjet rapid prototyping in the contexto of experimental cardiovascular modelling.

¿Por qué?
The appealing possibility of printing modelos of non-uniform wall thickness, resembling more closely certain Physiological scenarios.

¿Qué?
Rapid prototyping was used to transform aórtica geometrías as measured by contraste-enhanced MR angiography into realistic vascular modelos with large Anatomical coverage.

¿Por qué?
Local vascular anatomía y función en el mundo humano es de alto interés para la diagnosis y tratamiento de cardiovascular disease.

¿Qué?
Conversion of Thoracic aórtica vasculature as measured by Magnetic Resonance Imaging into real physical replica.

¿Por qué?
Rapid vessel prototyping permits the creation of a concrete sólido replica of a patient s vascular anatomy.

¿Qué?
Análisis Challenges and limitaciones de sufriente-specifico vascular phantom fabrication using 3D Polyjet printing.

¿Por qué?
Anatomic modelos, for medical device testing and Physiological condition evaluation.

¿Qué?
Combination of tissue printing technology (TP), human cardiac-derived cardiomyocyte progenitor cells (hCMPCs) and biomateriales to obtain a construct with cardiogénico potential for in vitro use oro in vivo application.

¿Por qué?
Con esta aproximación, se puede generar en el vitro tissue s homogeneosa distribución de celdas en el scaffold. Printing be used for defined cell delivery, while retaining functional properties.

¿Qué?
Build an appropriate artificial model of the heart that can replace the use of animales for surgical training in trans-apical AVR procedures.

¿Por qué?
Trans-apical aórtica valve replacement (AVR) is a new and rapidly growing therapy. However, there are only few training opportunities.

¿Qué?
Three-dimensional (3D) modelos of AAA using a rapid prototyping technique were developed to help surgical trainees learn how to plan for Evar more effectively.

¿Por qué?
The 3D aórtica Aneurysm modelo constructed using the rapid prototipo technique may significantly improve the ability of trainees to properly plan for Evar.

¿Qué?
Preoperative planning of this type of surgical Interventions due to the possibility of preoperative simulation of the inserción of femoral componente into the medular canal with rapid prototipo.

¿Por qué?
One of the problems we come across in our practice is related to the patients with very disturbed anatomy structures of the hip joint due to the incompatibilidad between standard implantes and host bone.

¿Qué?
The use of medical CT / MRI scanning, three-dimensional reconstrucción, Anatomical modeling, computer-aided design, RP and computer-aided implantation in treating a complejo fracture of acetabulum, calcaneum, and medial condyle of femur (Hoffa s fracture).

¿Por qué?
The production of a copy of the fracture oro a deformity in a bone with a complejo geometry.

¿Qué?
To evaluate the use of rapid prototyping in the assessment, clasificación and preoperative planning of acetabular fracturas.

¿Por qué?
El complejo three-dimensional anatomy of the pelvis and acetabulum make assessment, clasificación and treatment of fracturas of these structures notoriously difficult.

¿Qué?
Compare the diagnostic performance of stereolithography vs workstation-based three-dimensional (3D) reformations in intra-articular calcaneal fracturas.

¿Por qué?
Based on our results stereolithograms did not prove to be statistically superior to workstation-based 3D reformations. Stereolithograms may still be useful for Teaching Purposes and for surgical planning at a thinking-efficacy level.

¿Qué?
A 6 year old girl Presented with a large osteochondroma arising from the scapula. Radiographs, CT and MRI were Performed to ASSESS the lesión and to determine whether the lesión could be Safely resected.

¿Por qué?
The modelo allowed better Anatomical understanding of the lesión and helped bien surgical management.

¿Qué?
The aim of this study was to attempt to increase the accuracy of treatment by use of 3-dimensional (3D) computer-aided design. We Describe a novela method for ensuring an accurate osteotomy method in the treatment of Cubitus varo deformity in teenagers by means of 3D reconstrucción and reverse engineering.

¿Por qué?
Treatment of Cubitus varo deformity from a malunited fracture is a challenge. Anatomically accurate corrección is the key to obtaining good functional outcomes after correctiva osteotomy.

¿Qué?
Surgical training as a learning process for young surgeons oro for Ewing 's sarcoma in the cervical spine.

¿Por qué?
As a result, it is easier for the surgeon to understand the complexity of the case and plan the approach before año surgical procedure.

¿Qué?
We depict this method as it pertains to repair of the Charcot foot, it could also be used to plan and practice, oro revise, 3-dimensional surgical Manipulation of other complejo foot deformidad.

¿Por qué?
Charcot foot síndrome (Charcot neuroarthropathy affecting the foot), particularly in its Latter stages, may ponga a significante technical challenge to the surgeon.

¿Qué?
We used specific templates created using a rapid prototyping machine based on the patients 'anatomy, to aid in accurate intraoperative pin colocación.

¿Por qué?
Hip resurfacing arthroplasty (HRA) is a technically demanding operation, requiring both accuracy and precision in placement of the acetabular and femoral componentes. Malalignment of the componente can lead to notching and posible femoral neck fracturas.

¿Qué?
Describe a method for computer-assisted distal radius osteotomías in which computer-generated, patient-specific plástico guides are used for intraoperative guidance.

¿Por qué?
This Allows for unique positioning of the guide during surgery. For each planned drill location, a guidance hole is incorporated into the guide. The guides are easy to INTEGRATE into the surgical workflow and minimize the need for intraoperative fluoroscopy for guidance of the procedure.

¿Qué?
Surgical guides (patientspecific instrumentos) for pediatric tibial bone sarcoma resection and allograft reconstrucción a method for decreasing the resection margin width and ensuring that the margins are adequate. This method was developed in the tibia, which is a common site for the most frecuente primary bone sarcomas in children.

¿Por qué?
To ACHIEVE local control of malignos pediatric bone tumores and to provide satisfactory oncological results, adequate resection margins are mandatory. The local recurrence rate is directly related to inappropriate Excision margins.

¿Qué?
The procedure and results of posterior modified wedge osteotomy aided by the techniques of computer-aided design-rapid prototyping (CAD-RP) to correct Thoracic deformidad.

¿Por qué?
The corrección of severe Thoracic deformidad is Challenging. However, the usual imaging modalidad are not sufficient for performing the surgery

¿Qué?
Custom design is based on a computed Tomography scan of the patient s joint. The proposed design will customize both the articulating surface and the bone-implante interfaz to address the most common problems found with conventional knee-implante componentes.

¿Por qué?
The Longevity of cementless implante componentes is highly dependiente on the initial fit between the bone surface and the implante. The bone-implante interfaz design has Historically been limited by the surgical tools and cutting guides available; and the cost of fabricating custom-designed implante componentes has been prohibitive.

¿Qué?
Rapid prototyping was used as a tool for fabrication of the custommade implante.

¿Por qué?
Limited visualization of closed internal structures, influence of surgery on airway, presence of teeth and their relationship with the bone, and interference with Occlusion often make the surgery complejo and unpredictable.

¿Qué?
Thoracoscopic Pulmonary segmentectomy was Performed using the fissureless technique simulated by three-dimensional (3D) Pulmonary modelos.

¿Por qué?
The 3D modelo and rapid prototyping provided an accurate Anatomical understanding of the operative field in both casas. We believe that the construction of these modelos is useful for thoracoscopic and other complicated Surg of the chest.

¿Qué?
Construction of mediastinal modelos is useful for thoracoscopic surgery and other complicated Surg of the chest diseases.

¿Por qué?
Preoperativo 3-dimensional (2D) imaginando el tumor de mediastinal usando XNUMX-dimensional (XNUMXD) axial computed tomography es sometimes difficult, y una expectativa afirmación del tumor puede ser encountered durante sugerencia.

¿Qué?
Rapid prototyping (RP) technology to create anatomically congruente modelos of tracheo-bronchial tree for teaching relevante bronchoscopic anatomy.

¿Por qué?
RP can be successfully used to create anatomically accurate modelos from imaging studies. There is potential for RP to become a valuable educational tool in the future.

¿Qué?
Three-dimensional image reconstrucción by volume rendering and rapid prototyping has made it posible tono visualice anatómico structures in three dimensiones for interventional planning and academic research.

¿Por qué?
Using the rapid-prototipo modelo with hyperpolarized helium-3 magnético resonance imaging show el valor de este modelo for flow phantom studies.

¿Qué?
In an niño with tracheobronchomalacia, we implanted a customized, bioresorbable tracheal splint, created with a computer-aided design based on a computed tomographic image of the patient s airway and fabricated with the use of laser-based three-dimensional printing, to treat this life -threatening condition

¿Por qué?
We reasoned that the localized tracheobronchomalacia was the cause of this Physiological abnormality and made a custom-designed and custom-fabricated resorbable airway splint.

¿Qué?
We have successfully shown that 3DP can be used to Produce vaginal dilatorio (VD) and vaginal stents (VS) in adulto and Piglet Porcine vaginal tratara.

¿Por qué?
Currently available VS and VD exist only in adulto sizes that can not be used Safely oro Comfortably in the pediatrics population.

¿Qué?
A neonatal head phantom, comprising of an elipsoidal geometry and including a circular aperture for simulating the fontanela was designed and fabricated,

¿Por qué?
Allow an objective assessment of thermal rise in tissues during trans-craneal ultrasonic scanning of pre-term neonatos.

¿Qué?
3D-printed modelos of two fetos with facial Cleft.

¿Por qué?
3D-printed modelos can be a useful addition to patient education and can Positively impact maternal-fetal bonding.

¿Qué?
3D printed modelos of pediatric cerebrovascular lesiones

¿Por qué?
Despite the availability of multiplanar imaging, understanding relational 3D anatomy for complejo cerebrovascular lesiones can be difficult. 3D printing modelos provide an instantaneous visualization of lesional anatomy from all perspectivas, with the added ability to simulate operative approaches with tactile feedback. The modelo accuracy using intraprocedural assessment and potential benefit through shortener operative time.

¿Qué?
A Realistic 3D-Printed Tracheobronchial Tree Modelo from a 1-Year-Old Girl for Pediatric Bronchoscopy Training. Another interesting AM application reported is the prenatal evaluation of complejo patient-specific fetal anatomy that was subsequently used to manage complejo perinatal airway anomalías.

¿Por qué?
Because the tracheobronchial tree modelos used for training to date were Scaled for adulto Lungs, and there is a significante Variation between adulto Lungs and the Lungs of a neonate oro an niño.

¿Qué?
Evaluation of complejo patient-specific fetal anatomy and facilitate the Multidisciplinary approach to perinatal management of complejo airway anomalías.

¿Por qué?
The neonate was born with a protuberante cleft lip and Palate deformity, without airway obstruction, as Predicted by the patient-specific modelo. Anatomical modelo, in this case, prevented the surgeons from doing año unnecessary surgical procedure, and the child was discharged without need for airway intervention.

¿Qué?
Developed and validated a physical modelo to investigate the Biomechanics of niño head impact, which is the single most common cause of death oro permanente disability from injury in children.

¿Por qué?
Pediatric head injury cause and effect is poorly understood, as the only source of fecha for such studies have been niño postmortem human surrogates (PMHS).

¿Qué?
Surgical procedure for older children with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH).

¿Por qué?
The use of 3D-printed navigation templates resulted in reduced operation time, decreased intraoperative X-ray exposure and surgical risk, reduced epiphysis damage, as well as better operative guidance and surgical precisión.

¿Qué?
A case study about the Viability in the creation of a artificial liver using Rapid prototyping (RP) technologies.

¿Por qué?
These technologies might eventually enable the manufacture of human liver to create functional sustitutas for treating liver failure oro dysfunctionalit. However, the approaches used Actualmente face many challenges, such as the complejo branched vascular and bile ductular systems and the variety of cell types, matrices and regulatory factores involved in liver development.

¿Qué?
Three-dimensional printed modelos of the liver plus vascular and biliary structures assisted in preoperative planning and intraoperative orientation in three living-donor liver transplant Surg. Using Standardized preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative assessments, it is demonstrated Identical Anatomical and Geometrical landmarks in the 3D-printed modelos and native liver.

¿Por qué?
Ensuring the safety of Donors and recipientes is critical. The preoperative identification of the vascular and biliary tract anatomy with 3-dimensional (3D) printing may allow better preoperative surgical planning, AVERT unnecessary surgery in patients with potentially unsuitable anatomy, and thereby decrease the Complications of liver transplant surgery.

¿Qué?
The preoperative identification of the vascular and biliary tract anatomy with 3-dimensional (3D) printing.

¿Por qué?
Better preoperative surgical planning.

¿Qué?
3D printed the kidney plus a renal tumor in five patients who were candidatas for partial nephrectomy .to construct high-fidelity, patient customized, physical, 3-dimensional (3D) modelos of renal unidos with enhancing renal lesiones identified donde cross-sectional imaging.

¿Por qué?
Aid patients, trainees, and clinicians in their comprehension, characterization, localization, and extirpation of suspicious renal masas.

¿Qué?
Objetivas To investigate the impact of three-dimensional (3D) printing on the surgical planning, potential of training and patients 'comprehension of minimally invasive surgery for renal tumores.

¿Por qué?
Generating kidney modelos of T1N0M0 tumores with 3D printing are feasible with refinements to be Performed. Face and content validity was obtained when those modelos were Presented to experienced urologists for making practical planning and training. Understanding of the disease and procedure from patients were well appreciated with this novela technology.

¿Qué?
The authors investigated a novela application of patient-specific three-dimensional (3D) printing, tono ENHANCE preoperative, Multidisciplinary planning in complejo, living-donor pediatric renal Transplantation.

¿Por qué?
We report the new and safe integration of patient-specific 3D printing into complejo pediatric renal Transplantation. This technique Enhancer surgical planning and can inform operative feasibility in those casas which would otherwise be Uncertain.

¿Qué?
A training modelo to improve technique and understanding of renal anatomy could improve Complications related to renal puncture; however, no modelo Actualmente exists for residente training.

¿Por qué?
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is a popular method to remove kidney stones; however, broader use by the urológicos community has been hampered by the Morbidity associated with needle puncture to gain access to the renal calix (bleeding, pneumothorax, hydrothorax, inadvertido colon injury).

¿Qué?
One-way antirreflujo valvas for ureteral stents.

¿Por qué?
The 3D printing take advantage of an effective miniaturization, and high level of precision and reproducibility to generate one-way valvas for ureteral stents to reduce Retrograde flow of Urine.

¿Qué?
Trócares for Laparoscopic surgery have also been Manufactured by 3D printing to test the utility of printed surgical equipment to reduce waste and solve potential issues of instrumentos not being available when needed.

¿Por qué?
In this piloto study, 3D printing of ureteral stents and trócares is feasible, and these devices can be deployed in the Porcine and cadaver modelos. Three-dimensional printing is rapidly Advancing and may be clinically viable in the future.

¿Qué?
3D printing Allows to construct onto schaffold in which functional cells of the target organ are printed in a second overlying layerthe. These scaffold should eventually degrade and be replaced by extracelular matrix proteins Produced by the functional cells.

¿Por qué?
Local treatment administration.

¿Qué?
Since the printer software Allows the creation of shapes with equivalente volume, tablets of different shape but containing the same dose, can be printed.

¿Por qué?
Printing tablets in different shapes and colores to the liking of the child is expected to increase compliance for pediatric. It is also importante to note that the shape of the tablet affects many other attributes including the Disintegration and rate of dissolution oro rate of drug release.

¿Qué?
Medical implantes and devices, such as stents and catheters, are treated with active solutions oro suspensiones for local drug delivery, usually by coating oro spray-coating techniques.

¿Por qué?
3D printing offers increased efficiency, spatial and volume control para la treatment process.

¿Qué?
SPRITAM®, an FDA-Approved 3D-printed drug, has a unitary Porou structure Produced by a 3D printing process that bind powders without compresión. This structure Allows tablets with up to 1000 mg of levetiracetam to disintegrate within seconds when taken with a sip of water.

¿Por qué?
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Approved Aprecia Pharmaceuticals Company s 3D-printed SPRITAM levetiracetam for oral use in treating Epileptic seizures recently. The prospect of tailor-made drugs that are customized tono individual patient need.

¿Qué?
A 3D printing Monolithic implantes of levofloxacino.

¿Por qué?
The printed implantes showed more Porou infrastructure than those Prepared by compresión; thus, the drug release from the printed implante showed faster and slightly higher burst release than the compressed dosage form18. The implantes printed with an inner drug reservoir and inner and outer drug layers were able to show Pulsed and bimodal drug release.

¿Qué?
A novela extrusion printing system was used to create drug delivery structures where dexamethasone-21-phosphate disodium salto (Dex21P) was Encapsulated within a biodegradable polymer (PLGA) and water soluble poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) configurations

¿Por qué?
This approach Clearly demonstrates that the extrusion printing technique provides a facile and Versatile approach to fabrication of novel drug delivery platforms.

Filamentos are melted in fused deposition modelling (FDM) then Injected through a nozzle to a bed while cooling and solidifying during extrusion. These printers are inexpensive and fast, but are limited to rígido material. FDM needs a scaffold oro bed to support the object during the printing.

SLA is the oldest method which contains líquido in a do solidified with an ultraviolet (UV) laser controlled by lenses and mirror reflection, while a building platform is moved down for a layer-by-layer fabrication. A lattice structure is created to support the object.

PJ usas jets of liquid to build up thin layers of liquid before UV Curing by sliding the head in the x and y axes then a moving platform for the z axis to build up successive layers. PJ is suitable for a wide range of coloured materiales with specific properties (eg, rubber-like material).

SLS usas a láser to create the surface of an object by Sintering a powder. When a layer is done, the build plate is stepping down and covered with a new layer of powder using rollers to keep a constante thickness. At the end of the process, ajo powder is removed with compressed air and recycled. A wide range of materiales are provided for SLS and no scaffold oro apoyo material is required since the unsintered powder provides support of the object during the 3D printing. 

BJ has a platform covered with powder which is moved down while being solidified with a selective Spraying of liquid binder; thus, no apoyo material is needed for the fabrication of the object. This technology offers a wide range of materiales as faro as a powder can be combined with a líquido with enough viscosity to form droplets38. In addition, mechanical properties of the structures obtained by BJ in medical simulation are generally tuned by postprocessing techniques, such as drying and / or heating. Both have an impact on the mechanical properties of

Human buenas are the easiest biological tissues to reproduce by 3D printing as the majority of the materiales are rígido. The most common option remains acrylonitrile butadiene Styrene (ABS) by FDM but powders of plaster and hydroquinone were also used by BJ, as well as a mix of polyamide with glass beads by SLS.

ABS is the same plástico used in water pipe of mosto hombre and is the most affordable material in 3D printing. It has provee to be an appropriate bone substitute with good visual and háptica renderings for practising the drilling with minimised coste, despite the softness of the material.

Most of the 3D printing materiales presente en lack of realism to mimic adequately a soft human biological tissue; thus, post processing might be required to soft printed structures. For instance, cartilaginous tissues, for tumours in the contexto of surgical simulation, arterias to practise transcatheter valve Replacements, as well as hepático segmento and hearts

The common techniques to Produce this kind of structures are BJ, SLA and PJ (both techniques are Previously explained).

Multimaterial composites may be the future of 3D printed modelos since none of the current available materiales can mimic elástico and biological tissues. Hence, printing materiales containing fibras to control adequately the mechanical behaviour of the modelo are being explored. Mechanical testing can be Performed to analyse the biomechanical response of the human tissue by cutting, compressing oro tearing aparte the material. In this way, multi-material composites may be created based on the capacity of selected materiales to mimic the mechanical properties of human tissue.